Polar Oral History Program
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The Polar Oral History Program is administered by The American Polar Society and The Ohio State University's Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center Archival Program and funded by the National Science Foundation. The purpose is to document the early years of American polar exploration by interviewing those who were in the polar regions since the 1930's. Ultimately, the goal is to preserve the heritage of American polar exploration for future generations of researchers and scientists. This collection consists of transcripts of these oral interviews. For information contact the polar curator.
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Item Interview of Irving J. Morrison by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center Archival Program, 2024-08-21) Morrison, Irving J.CDR Morrison (Jim) was born in Geneva New York in 1922. His father, his mentor, was a veteran of the WW I Signal Corps. Growing up he was introduced to legendary fliers Frank Hawkes, Wiley Post and Roscoe Turner. He went for a ride with Amelia Earhart in his Dad’s lap when he was six years old. He followed all of the Byrd expeditions of the 1920s and 30s in the newspapers and movies. He was able to watch Byrd’s Giant Snow Cruiser drive through Schenectady, NY in 1935 on the way to Antarctica. Jim joined the navy in 1940 and trained as an Aviation Mechanic. He was assigned to fly Catalina amphibious aircraft. He had a number of combat flying assignments during World War II including the Battles of Midway, Santa Cruz Islands, Guadalcanal, and Solomon Islands. Later he was invalided in a US navy Hospital with what turned out to be a lingering case of malaria. After the war Jim had a variety of assignments, which included a tour of duty at Ohio State as a student and teacher of naval aviation with the Naval Science Department. He participated during the Korean War from aircraft carriers Roosevelt, Midway, Kearsarge and Tarawa and in 1954 was assigned to an aviation unit aboard the USS Tarawa evacuating refugees that were fleeing French Indo-China (later called Viet Nam) after the French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu. Jim was commissioned as a Limited Duty Officer (Aviation) in 1957. Shortly afterward he met CDR Edward Ward, who had been first Commanding Officer of VX-6, the Navy’s Antarctic flying squadron. He recommended Jim for Antarctic duty. And after some negotiation with the Bureau of personnel he was assigned to VX-6 to “winter-over” in an aviation maintenance billet. Enroute to report to VX-6 Jim was invited to visit Lockheed’s Marietta, Georgia facilities where they were manufacturing ski-equipped C-130 aircraft for the US Air Force for use in the Arctic. He received a very thorough briefing by USAF and Lockheed staff while there. Jim reported to VX-6 shortly afterward and reported what he had learned at Lockheed. He deployed to Antarctica shortly afterward, arriving at McMurdo in October 1958. He gives a very thorough description of life in McMurdo quarters, food, showers, ham radio, movies, etc. He became very interested in the scientific research and spent a lot of time in the biology lab as well as other scientific facilities. Shortly after arriving, he and his Executive Officer, CDR Jerry Barlow, had lunch with Admiral Dufek where they discussed his briefing at Lockheed on ski equipped C-130 aircraft. As a result, Jim’s orders to winter-over were cancelled and he was appointed the project officer for the acquisition of the C-130 Hercules aircraft. To acquaint Jim with the environment that the C-130’s would be operating in he was flown to remote science sites around the Antarctic – including Byrd Station, Little America, Hallett Station, Pole Station and to science camps in the Victoria Mountains and Ross Island by helicopter. He redeployed to the United States in Mid-December 1958. Shortly after arriving home, Jim was sent to the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics to work with the engineering staff that would approve and purchase the C-130. Jim was given the official title of CNSFA/VX-6 Special Projects Officer to acquire the C-130. Jim details the two-year period of negotiations, engineering modifications, flight tests, politics etc. that surrounded the acquisition of the aircraft in this interview. In the end the navy spent $16,000,00 for four aircraft 148218, 19, 20 & 21. He discusses how he and the BUAIR staff short-circuited several years of testing to deliver the aircraft some four years early in 1960-61 for service in the Antarctic. Basically they did it by testing the planes under working condition in the Antarctic from McMurdo. He covers the testing history in some detail. He relates being aboard 148320 the first U.S. Navy C-130 to land in Antarctica in October 1960. After two years of testing the planes were released from direct contractor support to standard military support in 1962. Jim notes that the first C-130’s that came to Antarctic were USAF three bladed propeller (Navy’s were to be four bladed with more powerful engines) models that had been used previously in Greenland. However they did a credible job, paving the way for the Navy models. While organizing all this Jim supervised upgrades and maintenance of all the other aircraft working in Antarctica. He was also responsible for setting up maintenance services for aircraft in Christchurch, New Zealand as well as Quonset Point, Rhode Island. He discusses the two seasons that the Navy operated the C-130 “On the Ice” and how the problems that cropped up were accommodated. Jim talks about flying commercially and being approached by Vice President Richard Nixon. Nixon knew Dr Tom Jones and was interested in the Antarctic Program. He offered to help if any problems cropped up – through Dr. Jones. Jim did report acquisition problems through Tom Jones on some occasions and the problems magically disappeared. Jim was also involved in obtaining support from the Army in the early 1960s. The Army brought six Bell UH1B Huey helicopters to Antarctica in 1960. The first turbine helicopters to fly in the Southern Hemisphere. He describes their operations in detail. Jim was assigned to shore-duty from 1962 to 1965 in Washington DC. At the end of his tour, at an Antarctican Society meeting, his old friend Dr. Tom Jones approached him. Jones arranged for Jim to be assigned to VX-6 as the Assistant Maintenance Officer. In the summer of 1965 Jim became involved in the process of transferring ownership of the C-130’s that he had obtained for the squadron to the National Science Foundation. Other than that his tour as Assistant Maintenance Officer was routine – especially in comparison to his first tour. In 1968 he transferred to CAG 60 staff in Quonset Point, Rhode Island and retired from the Navy in1969. Today he makes his home in Concord New Hampshire.Item Interview of Richard L. Schulz by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center Archival Program, 2024-08-13) Schulz, Richard L.Mr. Richard Schulz was a Second Class Construction Mechanic when he volunteered for Deep Freeze 3 in 1957. He reported to Davisville Rhode Island in July 1957 and underwent a good deal of training – it was then he learned that he would be “Wintering Over” at Wilkes Station during the winter of 1958. He went to Christchurch aboard the USS Arneb – AKA 56. Both the Wilkes Station and Hallett Station winter-over parties were on the Arneb. The Arneb followed the USS Burton Island and the USS Atka through the ice to Hallett and then Wilkes Station. Petty Officer Schulz was injured in the unloading of the ship at Wilkes and almost was evacuated for medical care – his foot was crushed. However, there were no other mechanics and the station upkeep was dependent upon him. He volunteered to stay and went ashore with a cane – the ships left. He was left with 19 pieces of rolling stock - 11 weasels, a Mulligan Fork Lift, 5 D-4 Caterpillar tractors, 2 Dodge Power Wagons and a “Tucker Snow Cat that was worth its weight in gold.” He also maintained 5 Caterpillar Generators that were needed for electric power and 4 Herman Nelson Pre Heaters. [This is a monumental task for one man in civilization let alone under the extreme conditions in Antarctica. He kept almost 100% availability during his tenure on the base. Had he failed, the station would not have been able to accomplish their work during the last year of the IGY – Interviewers Note.] He discussed the operation of the station during the year that he was there. He describes the windstorms that exceeded the wind-speed gauge, the digging out after storms, that he produced enough fresh water for showers any time someone wanted them by taking water out of a lake, describes all of the facilities etc. He describes life on the station – mid-winter day party, the importance of Ham Radio (KC4 USK) to morale, the building of a Chapel by Father Henry Birkenhauer who was there as a seismologist, the closeness of all the personnel and the high espirit de corps. He describes all the disciplines of the scientific research that took place. He accompanied a traverse group out to a station inland 50 miles on the polar icecap – Site 2 which was an automated weather station. He describes driving his D-4 tractor “crevasse detector”. He hooked cables to the brake levers and ran them out the rear windows of the cat and steered it by pulling the left or right brakes while walking begind. The idea was for the tractor to detect the crevasse by falling in it and not risking personnel. He said that he only lost one tractor and no people. Petty Officer Schulz was also tasked with taking care of 32 huskies and driving the dog teams. He learned on the job. He shot seals for the dogs – they would not eat the Gaines meal that was sent down. He describes incidents with the dogs. He also talks about driving the dog team to the inland station – 50 miles in one day. After the 31st of December the IGY was over and the United States was to turn the station over to the Australians. He describes the arrival of the Australians on the MV Magga Dan under Dr. Phil Law. He goes into detail on the turn-over process. P.O. Schulz built a runway for the Auctralian’s Oster Aircraft and got a flight as a payback. He also went aboard the Magga Dan and helped to care for the Duck Amphibians and drove the Ducks back and forth unloading their supplies at the station. The icebreaker USS Staten Island transported the entire American crew back to New Zealand. They flew back to the United States. [PO Schulz is one of the unsung heroes of Deep Freeze. His can-do attitude kept Wilkes Station humming. No one would have condemned him if he did not volunteer to stay with his crushed foot at Wilkes – had he not stayed however, it is doubtful if the station could have performed their scientific mission – interviewer’s note.] He never again went to “The Ice!” There are photos of all personnel from Wilkes Station 1958 as well as a roster in this file.Item Interview of David C. Nutt by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center Archival Program, 2024-08-12) Nutt, David C. (David Clark), 1919-2008In 1935, David Nutt (David), while attending the Hotchkiss Prep School in Connecticut, attended a lecture by Capt Bob Bartlett on the Arctic. Bob was a legendary figure who explored with Robert Peary, Vilhjalmur Stefansson and others. As a result he went to Greenland with Bartlett aboard the RV Effie M. Morrisey for five trips in the summers of 1935 thru 1940. Nutt lists Bartlett as a mentor as well as Waldo Schmidt of the Smithsonian Institution. In June of 1941, David graduated from Dartmouth. He was already in the Naval Reserve and was called to active duty the month before graduation. The Navy detailed David as Executive Officer to the USS Bowdoin, formerly the RV Bowdoin that was sailed by McMillan to the Arctic on numerous occasions. The Bowdoin was fitted out to do hydrographic surveys and in 1942 and 43 conducted hydrographic work in Greenland waters – most notably the hydrographic soundings of Sondestrom Fjord where the American base Bluie West Eight was located and other fjords where U.S. bases were established. In 1944, David was detailed as Executive Officer aboard the USS Sumner, a fleet hydrographic vessel. In early 1945 he became the Commanding Officer of the Sumner. It was the first U.S. ship to enter North China since 1927 and later was the first U.S. ship to enter Bikini Atoll since 1940. He and his crew completed the hydrography of the atoll. He was released from active duty in 1946. Captain Nutt, purchased the Blue Dolphin from Amory Coolidge after returning to New England. It was fitted out as a hydrographic ship by the Navy. He used the vessel on Office of Naval Research Contracts for a variety of scientific research projects in the Arctic. Among his Principal Investigators were Larry Coachman, Per Scholander, Dick Backus and others. He describes the work that was performed on the Blue Dolphin in detail in the interview. He was recommended for Operation Windmill by Waldo Schmidt of the Smithsonian Institution. Windmill was a follow-on expedition to Antarctica to establish survey control points for the aerial photography taken during “Operation High Jump.” Captain Nutt sailed to the Antarctic aboard the USS Edisto in 1947- 48 as a naval observer and curator for the Smithsonian Institution. Capt Nutt sold the Blue Dolphin in 1961, but continued Arctic research project for many years afterward. He served on the Board of Governors of the Arctic Institute of North America and the American Polar Society for many years. He is retired, near Dartmouth in the of Etna, NH where he has lived for the past 55 years.Item Interview of Elmer M. Cranton by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center Archival Program, 2024-07-31) Cranton, Elmer M.Dr. Cranton spent one year in Antarctica, but it was a very interesting and unusual role. He joined the Navy in 1960 as an enlisted man and was trained as an electronic technician. While in technician school he took a college equivalency test that qualified him to attend flight school, earn his pilot certification and become an officer – a position that qualified him to command a combat unit (known as a Line Officer). After completing a tour in the fleet flying Anti-Submarine Warfare Patrols, he resigned from the service to attend medical school. He joined the Naval Reserve while in school and flew jet fighters. When he finished medical School (Harvard) he reentered the Naval Service as a Medical Officer, a non- combatant position under the Geneva Convention. Shortly afterward, he volunteered for and was accepted for duty in Antarctica. He was assigned to be the Medical Officer at McMurdo Station and to spend the winter of 1967 there. He recounts the summer at McMurdo – it was routine. He was able to travel to Vostok, Hallett, and South Pole Stations. In early 1967 the Medical Officer and Commander of Byrd Station were removed because they could not get along. Both were replaced by Dr. Cranton – he became the Commanding Officer of Byrd Station (a Line Officer position) and Medical Officer (a non-combat position). He spent the winter in this dual capacity. He describes the conditions at Byrd Station – science projects, work maintaining the snow removal from the station entrance, auroras exploring the former Byrd Station that was snowed over and caving in from the weight of the snow. He recounts life in the station during the winter, the sunrise and the effect on him and the men there. Of particular note he describes the phenomena of how stations drift over on the Antarctic Plateau. Any structure built on the ice cap accumulates blowing snow from the blowing wind. The snow builds up behind anything that sticks up above the surface whether it is a narrow pole or a big building. This process continues until the snow level reaches the top of the obstruction. When Dr Cranton and his staff traveled out several miles and looked back at the station they could see the effect of the process – there was a low flat hill of drift that interrupted what otherwise would be a flat plain. Thus very high structures were covered even though there was little snowfall. At the end of the winter, Dr. Cranton broke his ankle while unloading the relieving aircraft. He stayed on several more days to finish up his work, but eventually had to be medically evacuated to Christchurch New Zealand and thence to Tripler Hospital, Hawaii to have open reduction to repair the ankle. He never returned to Antarctica. Dr. Cranton left the Navy in 1969 and built a private medical practice in Virginia and thence another practice in Yelm, Washington where he now resides.Item Interview of Stephen Pyne by Jean de Pomereu(Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center Archival Program, 2021-05-25) Pyne, Stephen J., 1949-Although Stephen Pyne is best known as a historian of fire, his book The Ice (1986) continues to be regarded by many as one of the most important contributions to Antarctic literature. The writing of The Ice is the focus of this oral history. Parts 1 & 2 focus on his journey to Antarctica and what he found there. Part 3 focuses on the writing and reception of The Ice. Stephen Pyne was born in the United States in 1949. He attended Brophy, a Jesuit high School in Phoenix, Arizona, and went on to obtain a Bachelors Degree from Stanford University. He later attended the University of Texas, Austin, where attained his Masters degree in 1974 and his PhD in 1976. In parallel to his studies and research, he spent fifteen seasons (1967-1981) as a wildland firefighter on the North Rim of Grand Canyon National Park. Pyne's first book was a biography of pioneering geologist Grove Karl Gilbert. His second was entitled Fire in America: A Cultural History of Wildland and Rural Fire (1982) and started a lifelong interest in the human and environmental history of fire. In 1981, despite not having any prior interest in the Polar Regions, he received an invitation to apply for an Antarctic Fellowship funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities. In his application, he proposed to write a general history of the earth sciences with Antarctica as part of the story. He was granted the fellowship on this basis and spent three months in Antarctica during the austral summer of 1981-1982. As a guest of the Unites States Antarctic Program (USAP), Pyne flew from Christchurch, New Zealand, to McMurdo Station on Ross Island. At McMurdo he followed a mandatory field-training course and accustomed himself to US Antarctic logistics, science and culture. From there, he accompanied a geological field party to North Victoria Land where he spent two weeks and realized for the first time that his book would need to refocus entirely on Antarctica and its primordial element: ice. After spending some more time in the field in the Allan Hills and the Dry Valleys, Pyne returned to McMurdo and asked to visit Dome C where the USAP had established a field camp in collaboration with French scientists. Before travelling to Dome C, however, he was first sent to spend about a week at the South Pole for altitude acclimatisation. Pyne spent around ten days at Dome C and accustomed himself to the unique environmental specificities of what he went on to refer to as the 'source region'. Following his stay at Dome C, Pyne returned to McMurdo and embarked on the icebreaker USS Glacier aboard which he sailed back to Punta Arenas, Chile, via the Amundsen Sea and the United States' Palmer Station on Anvers Island along the coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. Back home at the University of Iowa where he was employed at the time, he got caught up in more pressing commissions focusing on the history of fire and of the Grand Canyon and did not have the time to write his Antarctic book. Eventually, he decided to take a leave of absence from the University of Iowa in order to write the book. With no money except what little savings he had with his wife, Pyne returned to Arizona, stopped everything and wrote furiously for four months to get the book finished before money ran out. This done, he took up a temporary job whilst working on edits and rewrites. When presented with the final draft, Pyne’s intended publisher, Oxford University Press, with whom he had an advance contract, rejected it. Another university press refused to publish the text unless it was cut in half. He declined and The Ice was eventually published by the nascent University of Iowa Press in 1986. Against all expectations, the book received a highly complementary review from the New York Times and was selected as one of the Times' ten best books for 1987. It has now been republished seven times in both hard and paper-back editions in both the US and the UK. Following the publication of The Ice, Pyne returned to his interest on fire, writing more than twenty books on the subject. These where interspersed with a smaller number books on what he identified as the three great ages of discovery, as well as on writing techniques for history and nonfiction. He spent the rest of his teaching career at Arizona State University (ASU), mostly as a member of School of Life Sciences to which he transferred in 1999. He remains an emeritus professor at ASU and continues to live in the wider Phoenix agglomeration where he raises Tunis sheep with his wife Sonja. Despite standing alone within his wider oeuvre, Pyne still considers The Ice to be his best book: the one that is most likely to stand the test of time.Item Interview of Frederick E. Crory by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2012-02-24) Crory, Frederick E.Mr. Crory (Fred) grew up as a Massachusetts farm boy. At age 15 he joined the Massachusetts National Guard and at age 17 joined the Marines – serving in Guam and Japan. He also served during the Korean War. Upon discharge he used the G.I. Bill and attended the University of Massachusetts graduating with a degree in Civil Engineering. During his senior year one of his professors, Karl Hendrickson, introduced him to soil mechanics in the Polar Regions. This led to a job at the Army Corps of Engineers at their Arctic Construction and Frost Effects Laboratory (ACFEL). Fred describes his experiences in doing basic research for construction projects in the Arctic. Early on he began to work on developing adequate piling supports for the Distant Early Warning System (DEW) Line bases. Later it was on towers that oscillated due to the wind and affected their foundations. He explains frost heaving in airfields constructed on permafrost. This work took him to Fairbanks for a two-year (1956-59) assignment where he traveled the entire north Alaskan Coast conducting Arctic construction studies. Back in Massachusetts he took over the pile-testing program at ACFEL. He explains the merger of ACFEL and the Snow, Ice, Permafrost Research Experiment (SIPRE) to the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) in 1961 and the move to Hanover. Fred took over the Foundations Group of CRREL in the early 1960’s. With the development of the oil industry on the North Slope of Alaska, Fred became involved with development of foundations for oil-rigs, roads, airstrips, the Trans-Alaska Pipeline and etc. He explains his work studying how to protect the tundra and permafrost at test sites at Inagok, Tunaluk and Lisburne. He visited the USSR three time s to learn from their methods. He also traveled to Thule in Greenland to develop “refrigerated foundations” for the radars, the Ballistic Missile Warning System in Clear, Alaska and DEW line stations across the north slope of Canada and the United States when they were upgraded to automated sites of the North Warning System. Along the way he picked up a Master of Science degree from the College of Applied Sciences of the University of New Hampshire. Fred retired in 1990 and conducted Arctic consulting work until 1995. He is fully retired today and lives in Hanover, New Hampshire.Item Interview of Albert L. Raithel by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2012-01-06) Raithel, Albert L.Capt. Raithel had a very short career with VX-6 during Deep Freeze II (1956-57). However, he flew one of the first P2V’s there and his narrative gives a good understanding of the development of P2V operations in Antarctica. After only one year flying with the squadron, he was transferred to the Naval Academy as an instructor. The following is pertinent: 1. Read about Byrd Expeditions in 1930’s 2. Was member of the first Air Scout Troop in Miami, Florida in 1943, attended Naval Academy and then flight training in 1953. 3. In 1954 Bernt Balchen invited him to fly in the Arctic with the USAF 10th Rescue Squadron – fell through because of the aircraft demands of the Korean War Airlift. 4. Volunteered for Deep Freeze in 1955 when the volunteer notice came out, but due to Administrative error was not selected. 5. In 1956 he appealed to Admiral Richard Black for orders to Antarctica. Black told Admiral Dufek and Dufek personally picked Raithel. In March 1956 he reported to VX-6. 6. He explains how Lockheed converted P2V’s to skis and explains how the skis operated in the field. 7. Al flew as co-pilot to Charlie Otti. Other P2V pilots were Jack Torbert, Stan Antos (USMC) and Jack Coley who had been on Ski Jump in the Arctic. 8. Briefly discusses the P2V crash at McMurdo that killed four people. 9. Relates story of Jack Otti and him picking up P2V at Lockheed Los Angeles and flying to New Zealand and thence McMurdo arriving on 3 January 1957. 10. Describes the first P2V flights to the South Pole. First was flown by Jack Torbert and Stan Antos. Raithel and Otti followed. 11. Planes were very overgrossed. Used 16 JATO for take-off at McMurdo and carried 16 more internally for take-off from South Pole. Landed at South Pole on 8 January. Mentions crew were Don Thomas ADR-1 (plane captain), Buzz Hudson (radioman) Ed Silberman (Navigator – USMC). 12. Discusses operation of the jets and reciprocating engines – jets burned av-gas. Had an integral heaters in each nacelle to warm the engines at low temperatures. 13. Returned to New Zealand on 13 January after only 10 day in Antarctica, due to failures of the attaching fittings in the aircraft ski system. Never returned. 14. Commented that Dufek was “sort-of” the Commanding Officer of VX-6. “Capt Cordinier and CDR Ward were more-or-less relegated to gofers.” 15. Ordered to Naval Academy shortly after returning to the United States due to completion of four continuous years of sea duty. 16. In 1957 he was ordered as advisor for air operations to work with Xavier deMaere of the Belgian Antarctic Program. Later in 1974 while he was assigned to NATO Staff in Brussels he again worked closely with Admiral deMaere.Item Interview of Frank G. Stokes by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2012-01-06) Stokes, Frank G.Capt Stokes became interested in Admiral Byrd after listening to the Admiral’s broadcasts during his expeditions. He graduated from the Naval Academy in 1953 and after his first tour of duty volunteered for Operation Deep Freeze. He was assigned to Little America in the fall of 1957 as the Communications Officer. He sailed from Seattle aboard the USS Atka via Christchurch to Little America at Kainan Bay. He gives good descriptions about life “On the Ice”. Mentions that Gus Shinn was their station pilot and that he spent the summer at Little America. Give a thorough accounting of the incident of Bert Crary falling into Kainan Bay when the ice front collapsed. Mentions “Little America College” and the regular lecture series that was involved. Little America was officially closed as a science base at the end of IGY (Dec 31, 1958), but Stokes was left behind with a close-out crew. He closed out the station on January 19, 1959 – he was the last to leave. He never had duty again in the Antarctic, but returned twice as a tourist in 1994 and 1995. The following is pertinent: 1. Listened to Admiral Byrd on radio as a young man. 2. While at Naval Academy wrote thesis on Admiral Byrd. 3. Volunteered for Deep Freeze after his first tour in fleet in 1957. 4. Was sent to Thule Greenland for survival school. 5. Was assigned as the Communications Officer to Antarctic Support Activities headed by Capt Pat Mayer. 6. He flew to Christchurch and boarded the USS Atka and headed for Kainan Bay. 7. He describes crashing two helicopters at Little America. 8. Slept in sleeping bag at first until previous winter crew left. 9. CDR Tommy Thompson was CO of Little America – Stokes boss. 10. Stokes was also Postal Officer requiring him to fly to Byrd Station and McMurdo. 11. Describes “Goober Beer”. 12. Discusses “All Hands” Club and fraternization with enlisted. 13. Discusses Antarctic Weather Central. 14. Describes the effect of sun-spots on communications. 15. States that there were four pilots assigned during the winter – they flew all winter. 16. He was duty officer when Bert Crary, the chief scientist in Antarctica, fell into Kainan Bay and was rescued by helicopter. He describes the incident in detail since he coordinated the rescue. 17. He discusses HAM Radio and its importance to morale. 18. Talks about the routine of steam-baths with others of the staff. 19. Frank and the scientists started “Little America College” which had lectures and movies every night. 20. He discusses the closing of Little America V. Stokes was the last man to leave. 21. Traveled to New Zealand on the USS Arneb 22. Returned to Ross Sea with Fuch and Hillary in 1994 as a tourist and again in 1995. 23. In 2001 Stokes joined a group from the Planetary Studies Foundation and Harper College to collect meteorites in Antarctica.Item Interview of Charles A. Burroughs by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2012-01-06) Burroughs, Charles A.Capt. Burroughs was commissioned as an Ensign in the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey upon graduation from the University of Connecticut in 1958 and was immediately sent to Alaska aboard the R/V Patton, a small hydrographic survey ship. Later he was assigned to the Bering Sea aboard the R/V Pathfinder where they surveyed the coast of the Aleutian Peninsula while based at Dutch Harbor. He attended graduate school (Major in Geodetic Science) from 1962-63 at The Ohio State University. He then worked in triangulation fieldwork in the Arctic, including the establishment of the first Coast and Geodetic satellite triangulation station in the Arctic at Cambridge Bay, NWT in 1964 during the winter. He discusses his experiences while there and also talks about the remains of the M/V Maud, Amundsen's ship that rests in shallow water just offshore. In 1965, Capt. Burroughs performed reconnaissance for four more satellite triangulation stations on St. Lawrence Island, Shemya Island, Pt. Barrow and Cold Bay. These were important accomplishments because they laid the groundwork for more accurate photographic mapping systems of the Arctic Basin, as well as providing data for the establishment of a world –wide geodetic datum. After the C&GS was rolled into ESSA in 1965, and finally NOAA in 1970, he was given Command of the NOAA Ship Fairweather during 1973-74, where he made modern hydrographic surveys of the Cook Inlet and Glacier Bay, Alaska (utilizing automated hydrographic survey systems). From 1976 until he retired in 1985, he held a number of staff and administrative positions in NOAA Headquarters, including Chief of Staff to the Director of the NOAA Corps. This was a short, but good interview. As an aside it should be noted that Capt. Burroughs is still involved with mapping and has been an officer of numerous mapping societies including president of the Washington Map Society, editor The PORTOLAN, the Society newsletter/journal, and secretary of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Society. He is an authority on The U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838-42, commanded by Lt. Charles Wilkes that made significant discoveries of the Antarctic coastline. He has written a chapter in the Book Magnificent Voyages, The U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838-42, Smithsonian 1985. The book details the relationship between the expedition and the fledgling Smithsonian and the perseverance of Admiral Wilkes, who for 40 years attended to the curation of the expedition collections.Item Interview of John E. Sater by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2012-01-06) Sater, John E.Mr. Sater’s polar career began 1955 when he was in the Army as part of the First Engineering Arctic Task Force. This group studied methods of constructing snow compacted runways on the Greenland Ice Cap. Later he got a bachelors degree at Ohio State University under the tutelage of Dr Richard Goldthwaite. During the IGY he did surface motion studies on the McCall Glacier under a project funded by the Arctic Institute of North America. His career from this point on was centered about AINA and Arctic research although he had one tour in the Antarctic with the British. The interview was disjointed as he jumped around somewhat. There was some very revealing information, however. The following is pertinent: 1. While in the Army he was sent to Greenland (1955-56) as part of the First Engineer Arctic Task force that studied the construction of snow compacted runways on the central icecap. 2. Pointed out that the USAF was able to land C-124 Globemaster aircraft on the man-made runways and unload large Army tanks. Sater feels that the same type runways would be useful in Antarctica. Basically they used a heating device to melt the surface layer of snow and then sheep’s-foot construction roller to compact it. 3. During IGY he was part of the team that did motion studies on the McCall Glacier in the Romanzov Mountains, Alaska. Other team members included Dick Hubley (Station Leader), Bob Mason and Charles Keeler. Hubley committed suicide – he explains the details. 4. In 1960 Mr. Sater sailed to Antarctica on the Kista Dan as the U.S. Representative with the British Antarctic Survey. Sir Vivian Fuchs was in charge. The ship was frozen in “the ice” for a long period of time until the USS Glacier was able to free it. Scientific objectives were not met. 5. After IGY he returned to AINA where he helped to organize the Arctic Basin Symposium (1962) and to edit the Proceedings of the Arctic Basin Symposium (1963) – major work at that time. 6. Mr. Sater was the Station Leader on (Arctic Research Laboratory Ice Station II) ARLIS II from September 1962 to May 1963. Studies conducted Oceanography (?), Meteorology (Phil Church), Biology (John Moore), Acoustics (Beaumont Buck), Aurora (Vic Fisher). 7. Worked at Naval Arctic Research Laboratory as a supply coordinator from 1963 to 1964 8. Returned to AINA in 1964 and coordinated the North Water Project of Baffin Bay (polyna study). Used the Canadian Icebreaker St Laurent. Researchers included Larry Coachman, Robin Munch, Max Dunbar, Sven Orbin (McGill). 9. Discusses the aircraft crash in Arctic Ocean on the way back from ARLIS II. Plane took off with diesel fuel in the reserve tanks and when the tanks were switched the engines quit. Max Brewer, John Schindler and Zimmerman (pilot) were aboard. Aircraft put down in the dark on the ice pack. Air Force rescued them by landing on the ice. 10. Explains the Bi-national Status of AINA. There was a Canadian Directorate and U.S. Directorate. At first they were in Montreal and Baltimore respectively. It was incorporated on both sides of the border, but run by the same Board of Directors. Sater took over U.S. operation in 1970. AINA maintained itself by doing ice forecasts for the oil companies. It was closed in 1980 due to lack of money. Today the Canadian Directorate is at the University of Calgary and the U.S. Directorate is at the University of Alaska in Fairbanks. Chairman of the two boards are ex-officio on the other nations board.Item Interview of Gordon Cartwright by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2011-10-21) Cartwright, GordonMr Cartwright began a career with the US Weather Bureau in 1929 and served in positions of increasing responsibility witnessing all of the major developments in meteorological data collection and forecasting, the advent of satellites for weather reporting, the creation of NOAA from the USWB and other agencies and the USWB role in the Arctic and the Antarctic. Career highlights discussed in this interview include: during World War II, Cartwright organized a series of weather reporting stations along the ALCAN Highway for reporting Arctic weather conditions; he developed the Joint Arctic Weather Reporting System (JAWS) with the Canadians; he funded the construction of the initial weather reporting bases at Resolute and Alert; he was selected as an exchange scientist with the Russians during the IGY.Item Interview of William R. Anderson by Raimund E. Goerler(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2011-10-21) Anderson, William R., 1921-The interview focuses almost entirely upon Anderson's role as captain of the nuclear submarine Nautilus in crossing from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean on August 3, 1958. Topics include planning for the expedition, unsuccessful efforts, fears that the Navy would cancel the expedition after the first failure, and the importance of Dr. Waldo Lyon in developing the special instruments that enabled the submarine to measure ice thickness and plot the Barrow Sea Canyon.Item Interview of Edwin C. Flowers by Laura J. Kissel(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2011-10-21) Flowers, Edwin C.Recollections of Flowers' experience in Antarctica during the IGY as weather observer. Topics include: how he became a meteorologist and subsequently how he became involved with the IGY; daily life at the station; his role as a weather observer and what was involved in that, such as balloon launches; Paul Siple, and his influence on all who were there; relationship between navy personnel and civilian scientists; his relationship with other important people in Antarctica during that time.Item Interview of Herbert T. Ueda by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2010-01-08) Ueda, Herbert T.Mr. Herbert T. Ueda (Herb), originally from the Puyallup Valley, Washington, was incarcerated in Japanese-American internment camps during WWII. After the war he held a variety of jobs until drafted into the Army in 1951. After his release from active duty he used the G.I. Bill to obtain a degree in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Illinois. After college, in 1958, he obtained a job at the Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment (SIPRE) in Wilmette, Illinois. His supervisor for the next several years at SIPRE and at the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) in Hanover, NH was B. Lyle Hansen. During his career he made 24 trips to Greenland, four to Antarctica and ten to Alaska, working on numerous scientific projects. His first fifteen years were involved in deep ice core drilling with Lyle Hansen, eventually supervising the field operations. In 1966 he and Lyle Hansen led the team that was the first to drill through the Greenland Ice Cap at Camp Century, Greenland, hitting bedrock at 4550 feet – “The most satisfying moment of my career.” Herb then shifted to Antarctica and began drilling at Byrd Station, which he compares to Camp Century. In 1968 he and his team were the first to drill through the Antarctic Ice Sheet at Byrd Station hitting bottom at 7102 feet. He retired from CRREL in 1987 and went to work briefly for the Polar Ice Coring Office (PICO) in Fairbanks, AK as Technical Director in 1989. He returned to Greenland during the first field season of the GISP drilling project.Item Interview of Earl R. Hillis by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2010-01-06) Hillis, Earl R.1. Born in Campaign, Tennessee 9/15/33. Grew up in Chattanooga, TN. 2. Attended David Lipscomb College (now Lipscomb University) for one year and Alabama Polytechnic Institute (Auburn University) for one year before entering the NAVCAD Flight Training program of the Navy. 3. Commissioned Ensign and Received wings in June 1956. 4. First duty was with VX-6 for Antarctic research support. 5. Checked out in the Otter and picked up one squadron Otter at DeHaviland factory in Toronto. 6. Otters shipped as deck-load on ships to Antarctica. 7. Hillis sailed on USNS Joseph F. Merrell from Davisville, RI to Antarctica. Merrell escorted through the ice pack by USS Eastwind and USS Glacier. Spent Christmas 1956 in McMurdo . 8. In January 1957 he traveled to Little America where he was assigned. 9. ENS. Hillis flew with LCDR Harvey Speed and ENS. Bill Schick as a co-pilot/navigator. Their plane that they wintered-over with was the Que-Sera-Sera the plane that previously was the first ever to land at the South Pole. Their main responsibility was to support the tractor trains from Little America to Byrd Station (80 degrees south and 120 degrees west). 10. LCDR Hillis gives a good account of the use of the various navigational instruments used to fly around Antarctica – radar (APS-42), N-1 Gyro, Periscopic Sextant, Sun Compass, Ground Patterns in the ice surfaces, RACON Beacon, ADF, and Magnetic compass (“useless in polar regions”). He also comments on the Grid Navigation System in use. 11. Plane hauled fuel to the tractors. 12. Discusses ski landings and ski construction. 13. He was part of three flight crews that wintered-over at LA V. 14. Flew over to LA I, LA II and LA III and opened the tunnels to the old Byrd camps. 15. Flew many cargo flights to South Pole. “All flights were way over-grossed.” ie overweight with cargo ED. 16. Capt Dickey was C.O. of LA V 17. Pilots who wintered-over at LA V: LCDRs Jim Waldron (O-in-C), Harvey Speed, and Bill Schick and Lt Anderson and ENS Aygarn as well as Hillis. 18. Says HAM Radio was extremely important to morale. 19. August 1957 Speed, Schick and Hillis flew back and forth to McMurdo before the sun came up. 20. Describes Otter crash at McMurdo by winter-over crew just before sundown. Said it was probably “avoidable!” 21. Remained “on the ice” until December 1957. Supported science traverses as well as the Byrd Station tractor trains. 22. Orders to FASRON 102 at NAS Norfolk. Flew WV/R7V C-121) for project Magnet for Naval Oceanographic Office in the Arctic. Explains the project. 23. Worked from Thule April 1964 flying infra- red photography of ice pack. 24. Flew ice reconnaissance for submarine USS Sargo’s winter transit through the Bering Strait in Arctic in 1960 using C-121 (WV/R7V) . 25. Flew over North Pole as well as the South Pole. This interview is particularly good in that the interviewee gives a very detailed primer on navigation in the Antarctic. LCDR Hillis was one of the authorities on Antarctic aerial navigation in the IGY era and is eloquent in his explanation on how the different elements of navigation work.Item Interview of Gerald F. Carlson by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2010-01-05) Carlson, Gerald F., 1925-Mr. Carlson was just finishing his BA in Sociology at Washington State University in Pullman, WA in 1951 when he heard About the Alaska Native Services Office of the Department of Interior teaching program for native children. He and his wife Donna both signed up and three days later they were flying north to Alaska. His first year with the service he and his wife were assigned to a native boarding school in White Mountain, Alaska – near Nome. He recounts their experiences teaching grades K-12. There were some 300 Inupiat Eskimo children who boarded at the school. They lived in a dormitory with 10 other teachers and a school nurse. Mr. Carlson recounts the experiences, challenges and problems. He has remained in touch with some of his former students from that time; following their lives and careers. The second year with the Alaskan Native Services Office the Carlsons were assigned to Little Diomede Island where they were the only teachers for all grades K – 12. He tells very engaging story of sailing on the MV North Star from the Alaska mainland to Little Diomede and of having to unload all of their belongings into an umiak (walrus skin canoe) and being taken ashore through a rough surf. He describes Big Diomede, USSR, Little Diomede, USA and the Fairway rock on the Bering Strait. There were 130 Inupiat on Little Diomede – 35 were students from K-8 in a one-room schoolhouse. The schoolhouse served as the Carlson’s home – it was the only square building on the island except for a small church built by the famous Father Tom Cunningham. Their only contact with the outside world was with the school’s short-wave radio. The Inupiat lived in stone igloos – very primitive. Again he discusses the challenges of teaching. The MV North Star visited the island twice each year – first when the ice broke up in the Bering Strait and in late summer as it was heading south out of the Chukchi Sea. He discusses the problems teaching. First he had to adapt to local needs – the primary one was getting in 180 days of teaching before walrus migration began in the spring. That was when everyone was needed to help with the annual walrus hunt – therefore it was necessary to teach trough holidays and some weekends. He reports that the kids really wanted to learn and that there were no discipline problems. Beginning students had to be taught English because their primary language was inupiat. He had many other duties that he had to learn on the job – like radio operator (the only means of communication with the outside world) and surgeon since there was no medical care. There were problems with alcohol with the adults (until it was completely consumed) and the frightened children stayed in the school with the Carlsons until the sprees were over. He describes seal hunts on the sea ice and walrus hunts by umiak. Donna Carlson became pregnant and at the end of the school year the Carlsons elected to leave in the fall of 1954. They describe sailing across the Bering Strait to Cape Prince of whales in an umiak and from there flying to Nome and back to the State of Washington The Carlsons returned to Little Diomede 40 years later in 1993 and noted the changes. People lived in houses. There was a grammar school with six elementary teachers as well as a high school with four teachers. There was telephone service. Etc. Dramatic changes. Gerry Carlson has written a very humorous book, Two on the Rocks, about his experiences on Little Diomede. A copy is appended to Carlson’s file. Those interested in purchasing a copy may order Two on the Rocks by Gerald F. Carlson, ISBN: 1-58721-680-9. Library of Congress card Number 66-25144Item Interview of Eugene L. Boudette by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2010-01-04) Boudette, Eugene L.Dr. Boudette (Gene) used the G.I. Bill to go to college after WW II. He obtained a B.S. in Geology in1951 from the University of New Hampshire and went to work for the New England Division of the Army Corps of Engineers. The job took him to the Northern Greenland icecap where he completed test drilling for what later became Camp Century. His drills did not work properly and he became the go-between with the manufacturer and the Army to develop equipment that would work in polar conditions in what he calls an “imagination problem.” Later he was involved with work at Camp Tuto in Greenland. In 1952 he applied to go to work for the U.S. Geological Survey – Geologic Division. As he related it, this division was absorbed with determining “how Antarctica was put together” geologically. “It was time to link Antarctica up with the rest of the world.” There were theories, but they needed to be verified. So Gene went to Antarctica in 1959 to take part in a West Antarctic traverse as the geologist. This was the first traverse of 1959-60. It traversed from Byrd Station to the Weddell Sea to the Clarke Mountains and back to Byrd. Gene comments about a reconnaissance flights by VX-6 along the route and the mutual rapport and respect he had with the pilots – and comments that this was key to the success of the traverse. During the traverse, when they passed the Sentinel Mountains Gene discovered they were basically Kenyite. On leg two in the Clark Mountains he discovered rocks older than Kenyite. He also discovered a new province of older rocks that were similar to the Mountains of New Hampshire. He reported this discovery in his findings. Plans were laid for the following season in Antarctica at the USGS in Washington. This was a large-scale program of geological research for Antarctica under his leadership. This led to fielding the Victoria Land traverse of 1960-61. There were problems that year with logistics, communications (due to sun-spots) and weather. He comments that he was stopped in Christchurch by the Navy medical establishment when they detected a problem with his blood sugar. This ended his career in the field in Antarctica although there was no manifestation of disability for years. His work in the field passed to Art Ford and John Aaron. After retiring from the USGS he attended Dartmouth University earning a Doctorate of Geology. He took a position as a Professor of Geology at the University of New Hampshire and concurrently was appointed as the State Geologist of New Hampshire.Item Interview of John Svensson by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2010-01-04) Svensson, John, 1940-Abstract of Contents: Capt Svensson’s (John) career began in Antarctica when he was stationed in McMurdo Station with the Naval Support Force Antarctica as a Sea Bee surveyor. He left the Navy in 1964 and landed a job at the Arctic Section of the Department of Oceanography of the University of Washington working with Dr. Larry Coachman. While at the University of Washington he served as “Scientific Cruise Leader” for numerous projects in Arctic seas. He left the University of Washington in 1970 after breaking his leg and became a commercial fisherman: The following is succinct: 1. John grew up in Santa Monica. Joined the Navy as a Sea Bee in 1961. Assigned to duty in McMurdo Station, Antarctica in 1963 and wintered-over there. Surveyed in runways at the end of the winter. Discusses Russian visit to McMurdo, life at station and work with scientists there. Left the Navy in 1964 when his tour of duty was over. 2. Shortly after leaving the Navy John landed a job with the University of Washington Department of Oceanography (Dr. Larry Coachman). He traveled to Ice Station T-3 iceberg station via the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory in October1966 and served as Dr. Coachman’s “Scientific Cruise Leader” until January 1968. He describes the scientific work there – not just his own, but other programs as well since he was curious and helped everyone with their work. He also gave some good descriptions of some facets of life on the floating iceberg station 3. In the summer of 1968 John served as the “Scientific Cruise Leader” for the University of Washington aboard the USCGC Staten Island in the Bering Sea. The research involved current measurements at 60 stations in the Bering Sea – some deep-sea currents over 3 knots. Describes 4. In the fall of 1969 John was in charge of the Davis Strait Project whereby they were measuring currents in polynas. He broke is leg and the project was terminated. Unfortunately his career at the University of Washington was interrupted because the leg did not heal satisfactorily and limited him to some degree. 5. Later life: a. Returned to College and obtained a MS in Public Administration. b. Taught high school at Franklin High School in Seattle. c. Involved with Yacht racing (32’ keel boats). d. Finally wound up as a commercial fisherman. He bought his own boat and has been very successful. He attributes his success to the current measurement research that he did from T-3 in the Arctic and from icebreakers in the Bering Sea.Item Interview of Harley D. Nygren by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2009-08-18) Nygren, Harley D.The interview with Admiral Nygren was short, but very informative. He was the founder and organizer of the NOAA Corps and became its first Director when it was formed. He served in this capacity from 1971 to 1981 and reported to four Presidents – Nixon, Ford, Carter, and Reagan. His early career, however, found him on duty in the Arctic where he was assigned for three years to the Arctic Field Party of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. He was also assigned as United States Representative on the British Antarctic Survey Expedition of 1962 and was a member of the U.S. Inspection Team to Antarctica in 1970. He retired in 1981 with 36 years active service. He was well prepared for the interview with a written resume that is in his file. This interviewers tape recorder failed as the interview began and Admiral Nygren dug one from his basement that, after some tinkering, worked fine on this interview and several other interviews in the following week. The following is pertinent: 1. During WWII (1942) he joined the Navy and was assigned to the Navy College Training Program and earned his commission and B.S. in 1945. 2. In September 1947 he joined the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 3. He was trained as an Astronomic Observer in 1948 4. In 1949 he was assigned to the USCGS Arctic Field Party. His party surveyed the coastline and the near offshore from Point Lay to Barter Island – this is where he cut his scientific teeth. This was the first accurate survey of the Alaska North Slope coastline. The maps that resulted from the survey are still in use today. The work began in January each year and proceeded until September. This cycle went on for three years. 5. The work was immediately useful to the Navy who needed the information to sail inside the Barrier Island chain off the North Slope of Alaska. 6. He recounts the excitement and trials that were endured. He notes that they employed 50 Inupiat who were invaluable to conducting the survey. 7. Lt. JG Nygren, with his knowledge of the Alaskan Coastline, piloted a Navy convoy of LSTs along the North Slope. 8. From 1952 to 1954 he had two ship assignments – the Depot Bay and the Pathfinder –conducting surveys in the Bering Sea. 9. From 1957 – 61 he served aboard three other ships that worked off of Alaska – Explorer, Pathfinder and Pioneer. 10. In 1959 while on sabbatical at the University of Washington he was asked by Professor Fleming sail with the Brown Bear – a 128 foot wooden ship – when it sailed into the ice off Point Barrow. He recounts the experience briefly. 11. In 1962 he served as U.S. Representative with the British Antarctic Survey in Antarctica spending 5 months aboard the RRS Shackleton. Henry Dater was the head of the U.S. team. The team also conducted Antarctic Treaty Inspections of Argentine and Chilean Stations during this period. 12. CDR Nygren was assigned as Executive Officer of the Surveyor in 1966. He fleeted up to Commanding Officer in 1968 and shortly afterward was appointed to Captain. The ship conducted surveys in the Bering Sea and geophysical work off of St Lawrence Island and Cape Prince of Whales. 13. In 1970 he served on the United States Antarctic Treaty Inspection team. 14. After this assignment he was appointed as Associate Administrator of ESSA (Environmental Services Administration) and promoted to RADM and when NOAA Corps was formed he was chosen as its first Director, a position that he held for ten years until he retired in 1981. In this capacity he directed all of NOAA’s activities in the Arctic and regularly visited his ships and stations in the field for ten years. 15. In his capacity as Director of the NOAA Corps he served on numerous national boards and committees and through them had a major influence on national interests in both Polar Regions.Item Interview of Stephen L. DenHartog by Brian Shoemaker(Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program, 2009-08-12) DenHartog, Stephen L.Summary of Contents: Stephen DenHartog (Denny) first went to Antarctica in late 1957. He and Buck Wilson sailed from San Diego aboard the USS Burton Island and rode the vessel all the way to McMurdo with a short stop in New Zealand. From McMurdo they rode the USNS Nespelen a tanker to Little America V (LAV). In January 1958. From LAV he flew out and joined the Ross Ice Shelf Traverse under Bert Crary, senior scientist for the Antarctic IGY program, and relieved Bill Cromie as glaciologist. Later he conducted glaciological observations out to Mile 160 along the “Byrd Station Highway.” He was with Bert Crary when the ice front by Little America crumbled taking Bert with it. He ran back and alerted the camp – eventually saving Crary’s life. During the winter he and Crary conducted oceanographic research from the sea-ice on Kainan Bay. After the winter of 1958 he participated in the Victoria Land Traverse from LAV across the Ross Ice Shelf, up the Skeleton Glacier to the Antarctic Plateau to 81degrees South and 132 degrees East and thence to McMurdo Station. In 1961 Denny traveled to Barrow Alaska and thence to Arctic Research Lab Ice Station II (ARLIS II) on a tabular iceberg in the Arctic Ocean. In 1962 he returned to McMurdo for gravity survey work. In the spring months of 1962 thru 65 he completed gravity surveys from Cessna 180 aircraft flying from Point Barrow, AK. In 1969 Denny rode the SS Manhattan from Point Barrow to Halifax to assess its icebreaking capability. In 1970 he returned on the ship to the Arctic, again to test the icebreaking ability. The purpose of these tests was to gain data for building large icebreaking tankers as an alternative to the proposed Alyeska Pipeline. From 1970 to 1992 he worked for the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory in Hanover, NH. His specialty was to study river and lake ice. While there he also worked on the blue ice runway project with Charles Swithenbank and Malcom Mellor.